Bitterness in Traumatized Children
Imagine a child's world turned upside down, where every experience is tainted with a persistent cloud of resentment and disappointment. This is the reality for children grappling with bitterness, a complex emotional state that goes far beyond fleeting frustration. As their young minds struggle to process perceived unfairness or unresolved hurt, bitterness can take root, transforming once-joyful activities into sources of cynicism and distrust. Delving into the intricate workings of the brain, we uncover how trauma can rewire a child's emotional responses, making the journey to overcome bitterness a challenging but crucial path to emotional well-being.
Bitter Seeds: How Childhood Trauma Shapes Mental Health
Bitterness in children is characterized by a persistent feeling of resentment, anger, and disappointment, often stemming from perceived unfairness or unresolved hurt. It's a complex emotion that goes beyond momentary frustration, becoming a more ingrained negative outlook on life experiences. Bitter children may exhibit a cynical attitude, struggle to trust others, and have difficulty finding joy in activities they once enjoyed. This emotional state is closely connected to other negative emotions such as anger, sadness, and jealousy, forming a interconnected web of challenging feelings.
In the brain, bitterness activates the amygdala, which processes emotions, and the anterior cingulate cortex, involved in regulating emotional responses. For children who have experienced trauma, these areas may be hyperactive, leading to an exaggerated bitter response to perceived slights or injustices. The prefrontal cortex, responsible for emotional regulation and decision-making, may be underdeveloped or impaired in trauma-affected children, making it harder for them to manage bitter feelings. This can manifest in various ways, such as social withdrawal, aggressive behavior, passive-aggressive actions, or a persistent negative attitude. Trauma-affected children might also struggle with emotional dysregulation, making it challenging to process and express their bitter feelings in healthy ways.
In the brain, bitterness activates the amygdala, which processes emotions, and the anterior cingulate cortex, involved in regulating emotional responses. For children who have experienced trauma, these areas may be hyperactive, leading to an exaggerated bitter response to perceived slights or injustices. The prefrontal cortex, responsible for emotional regulation and decision-making, may be underdeveloped or impaired in trauma-affected children, making it harder for them to manage bitter feelings. This can manifest in various ways, such as social withdrawal, aggressive behavior, passive-aggressive actions, or a persistent negative attitude. Trauma-affected children might also struggle with emotional dysregulation, making it challenging to process and express their bitter feelings in healthy ways.
How the Wagon Method Helps Bitter Children Heal
Through the lens of the Wagon Method, a child from a difficult background who seems to be experiencing bitterness can be understood as navigating a particularly challenging stretch of their healing journey. This bitterness likely stems from the Grounded Experiences they carry in their wagon, representing painful past events or ongoing struggles that have left deep emotional scars.
The child's bitterness can be seen as a protective mechanism, akin to the Canopy or Bonnet of their wagon. It serves as a shield against further emotional pain, but also creates a barrier that can hinder their ability to form trusting relationships and fully engage in the healing process. This bitterness may manifest as cynicism, anger, or a general mistrust of others, making it difficult for the child to accept support or see potential for positive change in their life.
The Rough Terrain of emotional and mental challenges is particularly pronounced for a bitter child. They may struggle with negative thought patterns, difficulty regulating emotions, or a pessimistic worldview that colors their interactions with others. This challenging emotional landscape can make progress feel slow and arduous, like a wagon struggling to navigate through rocky, uneven ground.
The child's bitterness may also impact their ability to recognize and utilize the resources provided by their Nurturing Network. They might push away potential sources of support or struggle to believe in the genuine care and concern offered by others. This isolation can further reinforce their bitter perspective, creating a cycle that's difficult to break.
For caregivers and Advocates supporting a bitter child, it's crucial to approach the situation with patience, empathy, and unwavering support. The Trust (Kingpin) between the child and their Advocates becomes especially critical. Building and maintaining this trust requires consistent, attuned responses that validate the child's feelings while gently challenging their bitter perspective.
Advocates can focus on strengthening the child's Wheels of Well-being, particularly in the areas of Love and Acceptance and Identity and Value. This might involve providing consistent, unconditional positive regard, helping the child identify and develop their strengths, and creating opportunities for positive experiences that can counterbalance their negative ones.
The Toolbox of coping skills and strategies becomes particularly important for a bitter child. Advocates can work with the child to develop healthy ways of expressing and processing their emotions, challenging negative thought patterns, and finding constructive outlets for their feelings.
It's also crucial to address any ongoing Outside Obstacles that may be contributing to the child's bitterness. This might involve advocating for the child's needs, addressing systemic issues, or connecting the family with additional resources and support services.
Throughout this process, it's important for caregivers and Advocates to practice self-care and seek support from their own Nurturing Network. Supporting a bitter child can be emotionally taxing, and caregivers need to ensure they have the emotional resources to provide consistent, compassionate care.
By approaching the child's bitterness with understanding, patience, and a commitment to addressing its root causes, caregivers and Advocates can help guide the child towards healing. Over time, with consistent support and opportunities for positive experiences, the child may begin to let go of some of their bitterness, allowing for a lighter, more hopeful journey forward.
The child's bitterness can be seen as a protective mechanism, akin to the Canopy or Bonnet of their wagon. It serves as a shield against further emotional pain, but also creates a barrier that can hinder their ability to form trusting relationships and fully engage in the healing process. This bitterness may manifest as cynicism, anger, or a general mistrust of others, making it difficult for the child to accept support or see potential for positive change in their life.
The Rough Terrain of emotional and mental challenges is particularly pronounced for a bitter child. They may struggle with negative thought patterns, difficulty regulating emotions, or a pessimistic worldview that colors their interactions with others. This challenging emotional landscape can make progress feel slow and arduous, like a wagon struggling to navigate through rocky, uneven ground.
The child's bitterness may also impact their ability to recognize and utilize the resources provided by their Nurturing Network. They might push away potential sources of support or struggle to believe in the genuine care and concern offered by others. This isolation can further reinforce their bitter perspective, creating a cycle that's difficult to break.
For caregivers and Advocates supporting a bitter child, it's crucial to approach the situation with patience, empathy, and unwavering support. The Trust (Kingpin) between the child and their Advocates becomes especially critical. Building and maintaining this trust requires consistent, attuned responses that validate the child's feelings while gently challenging their bitter perspective.
Advocates can focus on strengthening the child's Wheels of Well-being, particularly in the areas of Love and Acceptance and Identity and Value. This might involve providing consistent, unconditional positive regard, helping the child identify and develop their strengths, and creating opportunities for positive experiences that can counterbalance their negative ones.
The Toolbox of coping skills and strategies becomes particularly important for a bitter child. Advocates can work with the child to develop healthy ways of expressing and processing their emotions, challenging negative thought patterns, and finding constructive outlets for their feelings.
It's also crucial to address any ongoing Outside Obstacles that may be contributing to the child's bitterness. This might involve advocating for the child's needs, addressing systemic issues, or connecting the family with additional resources and support services.
Throughout this process, it's important for caregivers and Advocates to practice self-care and seek support from their own Nurturing Network. Supporting a bitter child can be emotionally taxing, and caregivers need to ensure they have the emotional resources to provide consistent, compassionate care.
By approaching the child's bitterness with understanding, patience, and a commitment to addressing its root causes, caregivers and Advocates can help guide the child towards healing. Over time, with consistent support and opportunities for positive experiences, the child may begin to let go of some of their bitterness, allowing for a lighter, more hopeful journey forward.
List of Services
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Empty The child, adrift in a world that feels distant and unreal, struggles to forge the bonds of connection that once came so naturally, their heart and mind now shrouded in a pervasive numbness. Within the confines of their inner world, a hollow emptiness reigns supreme, a stark reminder of the wounds that lie beneath the surface, forever shaping the contours of their existence.Empty
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Ashamed Imagine a feeling so powerful it can make a child want to disappear, believing they are fundamentally flawed at their core. This is shame, a complex emotion that goes far beyond guilt, striking at the very heart of a child's developing sense of self. For children who have experienced trauma, shame can be particularly devastating, triggering intense physiological responses and reinforcing negative self-beliefs. As we delve into the world of shame and its impact on young minds, we'll explore how this emotion manifests in behavior, affects the brain, and creates cycles that can be challenging to break without proper support.Ashamed
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Bitter Imagine a child's world turned upside down, where every experience is tainted with a persistent cloud of resentment and disappointment. This is the reality for children grappling with bitterness, a complex emotional state that goes far beyond fleeting frustration. As their young minds struggle to process perceived unfairness or unresolved hurt, bitterness can take root, transforming once-joyful activities into sources of cynicism and distrust. Delving into the intricate workings of the brain, we uncover how trauma can rewire a child's emotional responses, making the journey to overcome bitterness a challenging but crucial path to emotional well-being.Bitter
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Cranky Imagine a world where tiny humans, armed with boundless energy and limited vocabulary, navigate a complex landscape of emotions and experiences. Enter the realm of crankiness in children, a fascinating phenomenon that turns even the sweetest cherubs into pint-sized grumps. From the classic whining and complaining to full-blown tantrums, cranky kids exhibit a repertoire of behaviors that can test the patience of even the most seasoned parents. But beneath the surface of these outbursts lies a deeper story – one of fatigue, frustration, and sometimes even trauma, reminding us that these little ones are simply trying to make sense of their big feelings in a world they're still learning to understand.Cranky
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Critical Imagine a child who sees the world through a lens of constant criticism, where every flaw and imperfection stands out in sharp relief. This critical mindset, often rooted in trauma or learned behavior, can act as both a shield and a prison, trapping the child in a cycle of negative thoughts and hypervigilance. As their brain's stress response system goes into overdrive, these children become experts at spotting potential threats and problems, but struggle to find joy or positivity in their experiences. This critical nature isn't just a personality quirk—it's a complex interplay of brain chemistry, past experiences, and coping mechanisms that can profoundly impact a child's emotional well-being and relationships.Critical
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Distant Imagine a child standing at the edge of a bustling playground, eyes fixed on the horizon, seemingly oblivious to the laughter and chatter around them. This poignant image captures the essence of a distant child, a young soul grappling with emotional withdrawal and detachment. Often rooted in trauma or overwhelming stress, this emotional state acts as a protective shield, guarding against perceived threats and further hurt. As we delve into the world of distant children, we'll explore the intricate dance between the brain's protective mechanisms and the profound impact on a child's ability to connect, express, and engage with the world around them.Distant
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Disturbed Disturbed children are a heartbreaking reality that demands our attention and compassion. These young individuals, grappling with overwhelming emotions and distorted perceptions, find themselves trapped in a world of inner turmoil. The roots of their disturbance often lie in the traumatic experiences they have endured, which have left deep scars on their developing minds and hearts. It is our collective responsibility to recognize the signs of disturbance in children and provide them with the support, understanding, and therapeutic interventions they so desperately need to heal and thrive.Disturbed
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Edgy Imagine a child teetering on an emotional tightrope, where the slightest breeze could send them tumbling into a sea of intense reactions. This precarious state, known as "edginess," is a common struggle for children who have experienced trauma, leaving them hypersensitive and quick to react to even the most minor of stimuli. As their nervous system remains in a constant state of high alert, these children find themselves trapped in a world where everyday situations feel like potential threats, leading to emotional outbursts and difficulty regulating their feelings. Understanding this delicate balance is crucial for parents, educators, and caregivers as they navigate the complex landscape of supporting children who carry the invisible weight of past trauma.Edgy
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Impulsive Imagine a world where every decision is made in the blink of an eye, with little regard for consequences. This is the reality for many children struggling with impulsivity, a behavior characterized by quick actions and a lack of self-control. When coupled with negative emotions, impulsivity can transform everyday situations into emotional minefields, leading to outbursts that seem disproportionate to the trigger. For children who have experienced trauma, this challenge is magnified exponentially, as their brains become rewired to prioritize survival over rational thought, resulting in even more extreme and unpredictable impulsive behaviors.Impulsive
Related Negative Emotions
The Story of feeling Bitter
Bitterness on the Oregon Trail: A Young Orphan's Journey West<br>
As the wagon train rumbled across the dusty plains, young Sarah sat huddled in the corner of her family's covered wagon, her thin arms wrapped tightly around her knees. At just eleven years old, Sarah had already endured more hardship than most adults on this treacherous journey west. Orphaned at a young age, she had bounced from one foster family to another back in Missouri, never truly feeling like she belonged anywhere.
The Millers, a kind-hearted couple who couldn't have children of their own, had taken Sarah in just before embarking on this perilous trek to Oregon. They hoped that a fresh start in a new land would help heal the wounds of Sarah's past and bring them all closer together as a family. But as the weeks stretched into months on the trail, Sarah found herself retreating further into her shell, a persistent ache gnawing at her heart.
Today, as the wagon jolted over yet another rocky patch, Sarah overheard Mrs. Miller talking excitedly about the new life awaiting them in Oregon. "Just think, John," she said to her husband, "We'll have our own farm, maybe even start that big family we've always dreamed of."
Sarah's chest tightened at those words. A familiar coldness spread through her body, settling like a heavy stone in her stomach. She knew she should feel grateful for the Millers' kindness, but instead, all she could focus on was the unfairness of it all. Why did everyone else seem to have loving families and bright futures, while she was left alone and unwanted?
As the day wore on, Sarah watched the other children in the wagon train laughing and playing during rest stops. She saw how their parents hugged them close, tended to their scrapes, and whispered words of encouragement. Each loving interaction she witnessed felt like a thorn piercing her heart, a stark reminder of what she had lost and might never have again.
When evening came, and the wagons circled for the night, Mrs. Miller called Sarah to help with dinner preparations. Sarah trudged over, her movements mechanical and her face a mask of indifference. As Mrs. Miller chatted cheerfully about the day's events, Sarah's resentment bubbled just beneath the surface.
"Sarah, dear, would you like to learn how to make biscuits tonight?" Mrs. Miller asked, her voice warm and inviting.
Something inside Sarah snapped. "No, I don't want to learn your stupid biscuits!" she spat, her voice trembling with emotion. "I'm not your real daughter, and I never will be. Stop pretending!"
Mrs. Miller's face fell, hurt and confusion evident in her eyes. But Sarah couldn't bring herself to care. She turned and ran, ignoring the calls of her name behind her. She raced past the other wagons, past the grazing oxen, until she reached a small creek at the edge of the camp.
There, hidden from view, Sarah finally let her tears fall. She thought of her birth parents, long gone but still painfully missed. She thought of all the foster homes that had promised to be her forever family, only to send her away. And now, even as the Millers tried their best to love her, Sarah couldn't shake the feeling that it was all temporary, that she would never truly belong.
As the sun dipped below the horizon, casting long shadows across the prairie, Sarah sat by the creek, her heart heavy with a bitterness that seemed to poison every good thing in her life. She knew she should go back, apologize to Mrs. Miller, and try to be grateful for what she had. But the fear of being hurt again, of losing another family, kept her rooted to the spot.
In that moment, surrounded by the vast, uncaring wilderness, Sarah felt more alone than ever. The bitterness that had taken root in her young heart whispered that it was safer this way, safer not to hope, not to love. As the first stars appeared in the darkening sky, Sarah wondered if she would ever find a place where she truly belonged, or if this bitter loneliness would be her constant companion on the long journey ahead.
The Millers, a kind-hearted couple who couldn't have children of their own, had taken Sarah in just before embarking on this perilous trek to Oregon. They hoped that a fresh start in a new land would help heal the wounds of Sarah's past and bring them all closer together as a family. But as the weeks stretched into months on the trail, Sarah found herself retreating further into her shell, a persistent ache gnawing at her heart.
Today, as the wagon jolted over yet another rocky patch, Sarah overheard Mrs. Miller talking excitedly about the new life awaiting them in Oregon. "Just think, John," she said to her husband, "We'll have our own farm, maybe even start that big family we've always dreamed of."
Sarah's chest tightened at those words. A familiar coldness spread through her body, settling like a heavy stone in her stomach. She knew she should feel grateful for the Millers' kindness, but instead, all she could focus on was the unfairness of it all. Why did everyone else seem to have loving families and bright futures, while she was left alone and unwanted?
As the day wore on, Sarah watched the other children in the wagon train laughing and playing during rest stops. She saw how their parents hugged them close, tended to their scrapes, and whispered words of encouragement. Each loving interaction she witnessed felt like a thorn piercing her heart, a stark reminder of what she had lost and might never have again.
When evening came, and the wagons circled for the night, Mrs. Miller called Sarah to help with dinner preparations. Sarah trudged over, her movements mechanical and her face a mask of indifference. As Mrs. Miller chatted cheerfully about the day's events, Sarah's resentment bubbled just beneath the surface.
"Sarah, dear, would you like to learn how to make biscuits tonight?" Mrs. Miller asked, her voice warm and inviting.
Something inside Sarah snapped. "No, I don't want to learn your stupid biscuits!" she spat, her voice trembling with emotion. "I'm not your real daughter, and I never will be. Stop pretending!"
Mrs. Miller's face fell, hurt and confusion evident in her eyes. But Sarah couldn't bring herself to care. She turned and ran, ignoring the calls of her name behind her. She raced past the other wagons, past the grazing oxen, until she reached a small creek at the edge of the camp.
There, hidden from view, Sarah finally let her tears fall. She thought of her birth parents, long gone but still painfully missed. She thought of all the foster homes that had promised to be her forever family, only to send her away. And now, even as the Millers tried their best to love her, Sarah couldn't shake the feeling that it was all temporary, that she would never truly belong.
As the sun dipped below the horizon, casting long shadows across the prairie, Sarah sat by the creek, her heart heavy with a bitterness that seemed to poison every good thing in her life. She knew she should go back, apologize to Mrs. Miller, and try to be grateful for what she had. But the fear of being hurt again, of losing another family, kept her rooted to the spot.
In that moment, surrounded by the vast, uncaring wilderness, Sarah felt more alone than ever. The bitterness that had taken root in her young heart whispered that it was safer this way, safer not to hope, not to love. As the first stars appeared in the darkening sky, Sarah wondered if she would ever find a place where she truly belonged, or if this bitter loneliness would be her constant companion on the long journey ahead.
The Story Explained Through the Wagon Method
Unraveling Sarah's Emotional Journey Through Trauma
Sarah's story is a poignant example of the emotional challenges a child from a difficult background might face, as viewed through the lens of the Wagon Method. Let's explore her experiences in detail:
Grounded Experiences:
Sarah's wagon is heavily laden with traumatic experiences. The loss of her birth parents, multiple foster placements, and the resulting feelings of abandonment and instability have created a significant emotional burden. These experiences have shaped her core beliefs about herself and the world, leading to a deep-seated fear of rejection and a struggle to form secure attachments.
Protective Mechanisms:
Sarah has developed strong protective mechanisms, represented by the Canopy or Bonnet of her wagon. Her emotional withdrawal, the "mask of indifference," and her outburst towards Mrs. Miller are all examples of how she shields herself from potential emotional pain. These defenses, while serving to protect her in the short term, are hindering her ability to form a connection with the Millers and engage in the healing process.
Immediate Responses and Reflexes:
Sarah's immediate responses, symbolized by the Jockey Box, are heavily influenced by her past traumas. Her instinctual reaction to Mrs. Miller's invitation to learn baking is one of anger and rejection, stemming from her fear of attachment and subsequent loss. These reflexive responses are automatic and difficult for Sarah to control, making it challenging for her to respond to kindness and care in a healthy way.
Emotional and Mental Challenges:
The journey west represents the Rough Terrain of Sarah's emotional landscape. Her feelings of bitterness, loneliness, and the persistent "ache gnawing at her heart" are the emotional challenges she must navigate. The comparison she makes between herself and other children with loving families represents the mental hurdles she faces in accepting love and care.
Significant Life Events:
The move west with the Millers is a major River Crossing for Sarah. This transition, while potentially positive, is fraught with emotional turmoil as it forces Sarah to confront her fears of attachment and belonging. Her struggle to adapt to this new family dynamic and the uncertain future ahead is evident in her emotional responses.
Environmental Factors:
The Pioneer setting itself represents the Weather Extremes Sarah must contend with. The harsh conditions of the journey, combined with the constant reminders of family bonds she sees in others, create additional stress and emotional strain for her.
Addressing Sarah's healing journey through the Wagon Method would involve:
1. Building trust (the Kingpin) between Sarah and her Advocates (the Millers and potentially other supportive adults) through consistent, patient, and attuned care.
2. Strengthening Sarah's Wheels of Well-being, particularly in the areas of love and acceptance, and identity and value. This might involve helping Sarah feel secure in her place with the Millers and supporting her in developing a positive self-image.
3. Providing Sarah with tools (the Toolbox) to manage her emotions, express her feelings in healthier ways, and cope with her fears of abandonment.
4. Cultivating a Nurturing Network of support around Sarah, possibly including other children on the journey, supportive adults in the wagon train, and eventually, community members in Oregon.
5. Helping Sarah process and integrate her past experiences (the wagon's contents) in a way that allows her to move forward without being weighed down by her traumatic past.
6. Addressing the Outside Obstacles Sarah faces, including her difficulty in trusting others and her fear of forming attachments.
By approaching Sarah's situation with patience, understanding, and consistent support, the Millers and other Advocates can help guide her towards healing, allowing her to gradually open up to the possibility of love and belonging in her new family and life in Oregon.
Grounded Experiences:
Sarah's wagon is heavily laden with traumatic experiences. The loss of her birth parents, multiple foster placements, and the resulting feelings of abandonment and instability have created a significant emotional burden. These experiences have shaped her core beliefs about herself and the world, leading to a deep-seated fear of rejection and a struggle to form secure attachments.
Protective Mechanisms:
Sarah has developed strong protective mechanisms, represented by the Canopy or Bonnet of her wagon. Her emotional withdrawal, the "mask of indifference," and her outburst towards Mrs. Miller are all examples of how she shields herself from potential emotional pain. These defenses, while serving to protect her in the short term, are hindering her ability to form a connection with the Millers and engage in the healing process.
Immediate Responses and Reflexes:
Sarah's immediate responses, symbolized by the Jockey Box, are heavily influenced by her past traumas. Her instinctual reaction to Mrs. Miller's invitation to learn baking is one of anger and rejection, stemming from her fear of attachment and subsequent loss. These reflexive responses are automatic and difficult for Sarah to control, making it challenging for her to respond to kindness and care in a healthy way.
Emotional and Mental Challenges:
The journey west represents the Rough Terrain of Sarah's emotional landscape. Her feelings of bitterness, loneliness, and the persistent "ache gnawing at her heart" are the emotional challenges she must navigate. The comparison she makes between herself and other children with loving families represents the mental hurdles she faces in accepting love and care.
Significant Life Events:
The move west with the Millers is a major River Crossing for Sarah. This transition, while potentially positive, is fraught with emotional turmoil as it forces Sarah to confront her fears of attachment and belonging. Her struggle to adapt to this new family dynamic and the uncertain future ahead is evident in her emotional responses.
Environmental Factors:
The Pioneer setting itself represents the Weather Extremes Sarah must contend with. The harsh conditions of the journey, combined with the constant reminders of family bonds she sees in others, create additional stress and emotional strain for her.
Addressing Sarah's healing journey through the Wagon Method would involve:
1. Building trust (the Kingpin) between Sarah and her Advocates (the Millers and potentially other supportive adults) through consistent, patient, and attuned care.
2. Strengthening Sarah's Wheels of Well-being, particularly in the areas of love and acceptance, and identity and value. This might involve helping Sarah feel secure in her place with the Millers and supporting her in developing a positive self-image.
3. Providing Sarah with tools (the Toolbox) to manage her emotions, express her feelings in healthier ways, and cope with her fears of abandonment.
4. Cultivating a Nurturing Network of support around Sarah, possibly including other children on the journey, supportive adults in the wagon train, and eventually, community members in Oregon.
5. Helping Sarah process and integrate her past experiences (the wagon's contents) in a way that allows her to move forward without being weighed down by her traumatic past.
6. Addressing the Outside Obstacles Sarah faces, including her difficulty in trusting others and her fear of forming attachments.
By approaching Sarah's situation with patience, understanding, and consistent support, the Millers and other Advocates can help guide her towards healing, allowing her to gradually open up to the possibility of love and belonging in her new family and life in Oregon.
Supporting Research and Sources
- Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5(4), 323-370.
- van der Kolk, B. A. (2015). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. Penguin Books.
- Siegel, D. J. (2012). The developing mind: How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are. Guilford Press.
- Perry, B. D., & Szalavitz, M. (2017). The boy who was raised as a dog: And other stories from a child psychiatrist's notebook--What traumatized children can teach us about loss, love, and healing. Hachette UK.
- Malchiodi, C. A. (2015). Creative interventions with traumatized children. Guilford Publications.
- Ungar, M. (2013). Resilience, trauma, context, and culture. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 14(3), 255-266.